Creatine is a popular supplement among athletes and gym-goers, known for boosting explosive exercise performance. It’s also one of the most well-researched supplements, which is why we now know its effects expand way further than just improving performance and endurance. What does science say about its benefits, safety, and the best form to take?
What is creatine?
Creatine is a natural chemical found in your muscles and brain. It is produced in the liver, kidneys and pancreas. Your body makes it from amino acids, and you also get small amounts from foods like red meat and oily fish. Most of the creatine in your body (about 95%) is stored in your muscles, where it plays a key role in producing quick energy, especially during high-intensity, short-duration activities like lifting heavy weights or sprinting.
In other words, creatine is a naturally occurring substance your body uses for energy. The problem, however, is that our bodies do not produce enough creatine for the total need. A solution could be to increase your intake of creatine-rich foods. There is also growing evidence to support that supplementing creatine can lead to better performance, improved strength, and faster recovery. While it’s best known in the sports and fitness world, research now also suggests it may benefit brain function, aging, and overall muscle health, even in people who don’t exercise heavily.
How does creatine work to improve performance?
To understand how creatine works, it helps to know a bit about how your body produces energy during exercise. For short, explosive movements (like a sprint or heavy lift), your muscles use a system called ATP-phosphocreatine. ATP is your body’s quick energy source, but your muscles only store enough for a few seconds. This is where creatine phosphate comes in: it helps by quickly refilling your ATP so you can keep pushing at high intensity.
By supplementing with creatine, you increase the amount of creatine phosphate available in your muscles. This means you can perform better during short bursts of effort and recover faster between sets. In practical terms, having more creatine in muscle may translate to squeezing out an extra rep in the gym or maintaining sprint speed for an extended second or two. That might not sound like much, but over time those small performance gains can lead to significantly better training quality and results.
It’s important to note that creatine’s benefits are mostly relevant to explosive, short-duration activities, lasting less than 30 seconds. In contrast, for endurance exercises (like long-distance running or cycling), creatine has not shown meaningful performance improvements.
More and more other health-related benefits of creatine are currently being researched, one of the biggest being creatine’s role in neogenesis: the process of forming new neurons in the brain.
Cognitive benefits of creatine supplementation
The brain uses a lot of energy, and creatine plays a role in brain energy metabolism. While there is not enough evidence to fully support the theory (yet), some studies have shown that creatine supplementation can improve performance on cognitive tasks, especially in situations of sleep deprivation or mental fatigue.
There is also a lot of research done on creatine’s potential neuroprotective effects: some early research suggests it might support brain health in older adults and could possibly be beneficial in conditions like mild cognitive impairment, concussion recovery and even Alzheimer’s disease (though more research is needed in these areas). In a small 2025 study, older adults with early Alzheimer’s took 20 grams of creatine per day for 8 weeks. Their brain creatine levels went up, and some even showed improvements in memory and thinking. Scientists believe this might be because creatine helps the brain produce energy more efficiently; energy problems are a key issue in Alzheimer’s.
The role of creatine in age-related muscle and bone loss
Creatine isn’t just for young people trying to build muscle; it may also benefit older adults. Research indicates that creatine supplementation, alongside resistance training, can help counteract sarcopenia (age-related muscle loss) and even support bone mineral density in seniors. By preserving muscle mass and strength, creatine could improve functional ability in older adults. Some studies in people over 50 have found that adding creatine to an exercise program led to better increases in muscle strength and even aided in losing fat while maintaining muscle.
For most people, the clearest benefits of creatine will be seen in the gym or on the field: better performance, more reps, increased strength and muscle over time, and enhanced recovery. Additionally, certain groups like vegetarians (who have lower baseline creatine) or older adults may notice cognitive improvements or anti-aging benefits.
Different types of creatine
There are several different types of creatine. Let’s get one thing clear: creatine monohydrate is the gold standard and best choice for almost everyone. It’s the form used in the vast majority of research over the past decades, and virtually all the benefits we discussed have been demonstrated with creatine monohydrate. Other forms have no proven advantages in efficacy.
Extensive reviews by experts conclude that no other marketed form of creatine has shown superior results to creatine monohydrate in well-controlled studies. In fact, most studies that compared them found no difference in performance or muscle outcomes. If anything, alternative forms often yield less increase in muscle creatine because they provide a smaller dose of pure creatine per gram. For example, creatine HCL is sometimes claimed to be more soluble, so you can take a smaller dose, but there’s no evidence that it translates to better muscle creatine saturation or greater strength gains than monohydrate.
Why does monohydrate remain the undefeated champion? A few reasons: it’s already absorbed extremely well (around 99% of a creatine monohydrate dose is absorbed or excreted: very little is wasted), and it delivers a high percentage of active creatine per unit weight. It’s also very stable and has been tested for safety and efficacy in hundreds of studies. Plus, monohydrate is usually the most cost-effective form.
The only potential reason to consider a different form might be if you personally experience stomach problems with monohydrate powder. In such cases, some people try micronized monohydrate (which is just monohydrate processed into smaller particles, often improving water mixing) or creatine HCL (which allows a smaller dose due to higher solubility). However, many find that any minor digestive discomfort from monohydrate can be solved by taking it with plenty of water or after a meal.
Purity and quality of creatine monohydrate can vary by brand, so choose a reputable brand that uses high-quality creatine. Reputable products will be third-party tested for contaminants. Avoid sketchy, ultra-cheap creatine from unknown sources, as poor manufacturing can lead to impurities (like creatinine or contaminants) in the product. But again, these concerns are about quality control, not the form of creatine itself, as a pure creatine monohydrate is as effective as it gets.
Dosage
For most adults, a dose of 3–5 grams of creatine monohydrate per day is sufficient to keep muscle stores elevated. This is the amount used in many studies as a maintenance dose. Taking 5g a day (roughly one heaping teaspoon of powder) will saturate most people’s muscles with creatine after a few weeks. Smaller individuals or those eating a lot of meat might lean towards ~3g/day, while larger athletes might take up to ~5g. Consistency is important: you need to take it daily to keep levels elevated.
It takes some time for creatine to ‘fill up’ your muscle stores, this is why you can do a loading phase if you want to saturate your muscles faster. The traditional loading dosage is ~20 grams per day for 5-7 days, split into 4 doses of 5g throughout each day. After that, you drop to the regular 3-5g daily dose to maintain. The alternative (skipping the loading phase) is taking 3-5g daily from the start. Your muscles will still reach the same saturation point, it will just take a bit longer (around 3-4 weeks of daily use). Both methods work, so choose based on your patience and whether you want results sooner. Keep in mind that very high doses (20g+) can sometimes cause stomach cramping or bloating in some people, so loading isn’t for everyone. Also, as a critical note, taking more than ~5g at once doesn’t provide added benefit and just puts more load on your kidneys to excrete the excess.
Timing
There is no perfect time of day to take creatine. Whether you take it in the morning, pre-workout, post-workout, or before bed is largely personal preference. Personally, I add creatine to my protein shake after a workout. Some studies have looked at pre- vs post-exercise dosing and found no major difference in outcomes, as long as total daily intake is consistent. Taking creatine with a source of carbohydrates and protein may enhance uptake slightly by stimulating insulin, which helps drive nutrients into muscles.
Hydration
When you use creatine, your muscle cells pull in more water (which is part of how creatine works). So it’s important to stay well-hydrated. Make sure you’re drinking enough fluids throughout the day, especially during heavy training. Proper hydration will optimize the benefits and reduce any chance of cramps or feelings of dehydration (which creatine doesn’t inherently cause, but if you don’t drink enough water, you might feel a bit thirstier when on creatine).
Combining creatine with other supplements
Creatine can be combined with most other supplements, but be careful with high doses caffeine. Some evidence suggests that high doses of caffeine (above ~300 mg, equivalent to ~3+ cups of coffee) may decrease the performance benefits of creatine, and high caffeine intake alongside creatine has been speculatively linked to worse progression of Parkinson’s disease. Now don’t think this means you must avoid your morning coffee, but mega-dosing caffeine pills while on creatine isn’t advisable. Moderate caffeine use is generally fine, but be aware if you’re not noticing creatine’s effects and consume a lot of caffeine, that could be a factor.
Cycling
Unlike some supplements, you do not need to cycle creatine on and off to ‘reset’ its effectiveness. There’s no evidence of downregulation that would require cycling. Creatine isn’t a stimulant or hormone that you build tolerance to. Long-term studies (up to 5 years of continuous use) have found it to be safe with no adverse effects. You can continuously supplement if you wish. That said, if you stop taking creatine, the elevated muscle stores will gradually return to baseline after about 4–6 weeks. Any extra water weight will likewise drop off.
Debunking creatine myths
While creatine has had a good imago boost over the past few years, there still are a few persistent myths to debunk.
‘Creatine causes hair loss/baldness.’
This claim got popular after a 2009 study of college rugby players that reported a rise in dihydrotestosterone (DHT) levels after a creatine loading phase. DHT is a hormone linked to male pattern baldness, so alarm bells rang that creatine might accelerate hair loss. However, no follow-up research has confirmed a link between creatine and hair loss. In fact, a 2024 randomized controlled trial directly examined this question and found no significant changes in DHT levels or hair follicle health between creatine users and placebo over 12 weeks. The majority of studies have found that creatine supplementation does not meaningfully increase testosterone or DHT levels in the body.
‘You can get enough creatine from food; supplements are pointless.’
It’s true that creatine is present in meat and fatty fish. For example, a pound of raw beef or salmon provides around 1–2 grams of creatine. However, to get the 3–5 g/day effective dose of creatine from diet alone, you’d have to eat a large amount of those foods daily. One estimate suggests you’d need to eat on the order of a kilogram of meat (over 2 lbs of steak) to get about 5 grams of creatine. Not exactly practical (or healthy) for most people! Most diets, even omnivorous ones, provide maybe 1 gram per day or less of creatine. Vegetarians get virtually zero creatine from diet, so their baseline muscle creatine tends to be lower. Supplementing creatine can raise their stores to be on par with people that eat meat and often yields noticeable benefits in exercise capacity and cognition for vegetarians. Supplementing creatine is the easiest and most effective way to consistently keep your creatine levels up without massive caloric intake or an extreme diet.
Who should avoid or take extra caution with creatine?
While creatine is safe for the vast majority, certain people should be careful or consult a healthcare provider before using it. If you have pre-existing kidney issues, do not take creatine unless cleared by your doctor. Because creatine is filtered by the kidneys, those with kidney disease are usually advised to avoid it to be safe. Similarly, if you have liver disease, you should get medical advice first. There is some evidence (case reports) that high-dose creatine might exacerbate manic symptoms in people with bipolar disorder. The data is limited, but out of caution, those with bipolar condition should consult their psychiatrist before using creatine.
Some research in Parkinson’s patients indicated creatine (especially combined with high caffeine) might cause symptom progression. Creatine was once studied as a neuroprotective agent for Parkinson’s with mixed results. If you have Parkinson’s or another neurological disorder, it’s best to talk to a doctor about creatine use.
The safety of creatine supplementation during pregnancy or breastfeeding has not been directly studied in humans yet, so the conservative stance is to avoid it during these periods, or talk to your doctor before using it.
Should you take creatine?
Creatine monohydrate has well-earned its reputation as an effective, evidence-based supplement. It’s not a miracle drug or a substitute for hard training and proper nutrition, but rather a scientifically-supported boost to your efforts. If you’re into weightlifting, sprinting, team sports, combat sports, or any activity involving short bursts of intense exercise, creatine is definitely worth supplementing! The same goes for those looking to preserve muscle mass (for example middle-aged and older adults) or vegetarians who want to ensure they aren’t at a creatine disadvantage.
If your exercise routine is mostly endurance (marathons, long cycling events) or very casual, creatine might not make a noticeable difference in your performance (but could still help you recover faster!).
If you do decide to use creatine, stick to creatine monohydrate for the best results. Be aware of marketing claims for exotic forms of creatine or overpriced creatine blends, as research doesn’t back them up. If you want to be sure that your creatine is quality and purity tested, check for a third-party certification stamp on the label. If there’s no logo, it likely hasn’t been independently tested.
For me, creatine is a ‘no-brainer’ supplement. It’s genuinely effective for almost everybody! Just keep in mind that supplements are not a substitute for the basics: regular exercise, good nutrition, and healthy habits.
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